Dating the Bible has been debated and these four tables give the most commonly accepted dates or ranges of dates for the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, the. THE PENTATEUCH PART II: EXODUS Lesson 2: Exodus 2:1-22 Moses' Childhood and Early Life in Egypt and Midian Humans may have first left Africa through the interior of the Arabian Peninsula rather than tracing its coasts, as had been thought. A new "Out of Africa". Exodus 19 New King James Version (NKJV) Israel at Mount Sinai. 19 In the third month after the children of Israel had gone out of the land of Egypt, on the same day. IBSS - Biblical Archaeology - Evidence of the Exodus from Egypt. Merneptah Stele One of the most important discoveries that relate to the time of the Exodus. Merneptah. stele which dates to about 1. BC. Merneptah, the king of Egypt, boasts. Canaan. He states: Plundered is the. Canaan with every evil; Carried off is Ashkelon; seized upon is Gezer; Yanoam. Israel is laid waste, his seed is. ANET 1. 96. 9, 3. The word . This implies that Israel did not have a king or kingdom at this time. The text also implies that Israel. There is an interesting place named in Joshua 1. The well which is probably anachronistically named after. Merneptah would be near Jerusalem. The Egyptian Papyrus Anastasi III contains. The Chief of Bowmen. Wells of Mer- ne- Ptah Hotep- hir- Maat- -life, prosperity, health!- -which. Sile (ANET 1. 96. Yurco has recently re- analyzed. Karnak battle reliefs, and has concluded that they should be ascribed. Merneptah and not Ramses II (1. There are four scenes which. Yurco correlates with the Merneptah stele. One scene is the battle against. Ashkelon which is specifically named. Yurco argues that the. Gezer and Yanoam. He concludes that the open country. Israel. Rainey rejects this view because it shows them with. Lawrence Stager suggests that the small. Ashkelon scene. (1. Rainey thinks the Shasu are Israelites, but others identify. Shasu as Edomites (Stager 1. Both scholars Yurco and Rainey. Merneptah's reign (Yurco 1. Rainey 1. 99. 2, 7. Hess 1. 99. 3, 1. Before the discovery of the Merneptah. Canaan much. later. They are now forced to admit that Israel was already in Canaan at. Merneptah. Israel was big and strong enough to challenge Egypt. This stele puts a terminus ante quem date of 1. BC for the. exodus (Mc. Carter 1. 99. 2, 1. The second type, dating a generation or two later (Middle. Bronze II, 1. 80. BC) are clay figurines which list cities along major. Mc. Carter 1. 99. The Egyptians practiced the magical. Shutu is probably Moab. Sheth (Numbers 2. Ahituv 1. 98. 4, 1. There are the rulers. Shechem, Hazor, Ashkelon, Laish, Tyre, and Pella ('Apiru- Anu). The ruler. of Shamkhuna is Abu- reheni (Abraham). The tribes of 'Arqata and Byblos are. ANET 1. 96. 9, 3. Jerusalem is named, but there is no mention. Israel. There is the interesting mention of the personal name . This was probably not the son of Jacob, but just a popular name? The Execration texts seems to parallel the. His majesty reached a foreign country of which the name was. Sekmem. His majesty took the right direction in proceeding to the Residence. Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretched. Retenu (ANET 1. 96. Some scholars think . Shechem. controlled an important trade route and the fertile valley to the East. The city was surrounded by massive embankments of earth. During the 1. 7th century BC a rectangular fortress. Toombs 1. 98. 5, 9. Wright 1. 96. 2. See Judges 9: 4. In the Amarna Letters the king at Shechem was Lab'ayu. Palestine (Na'aman and Aviv. Lab'ayu is accused of going over to the side of the Hapiru. Joshua. renews the covenant with Israel's leaders at Mount Ebal (Joshua 8) and again. Shechem (Joshua 2. Joshua never took Shechem so some scholars think. Gibeonite deception included the city of Shechem (NIV, Joshua 9). There. is no mention of Israel in this text. His path of flight may have been similar. Exodus, but his destination was Byblos. An attack of thirst overtook me. Kem- wer is the area of the Bitter Lakes. The. ruler of the Upper Retenu (northern Palestine and southern Syria) then befriended. Sinuhe marries his eldest daughter. It is a tribal society which. One battle is similar to the story of. David and Goiath. In his old age Sinuhe is allowed to return to Egypt. He. leaves his eldest son in charge of his tribe and all his possessions of. Finally, Sinuhe receives a proper burial. This story gives helpful background information, but. Israel. There is a Movie called The. Egyptian(1. 95. 4) that tells the story of Sinuhe. It. also seems most likely that the Exodus from Egypt should be equated with. Hyksos. Not all the Hyksos were Israelites. It says. in Exodus that a great mixed multitude came out of Egypt with Moses (Exodus. The Greek name . The word comes. Egyptian Hk. 3(w) h. Other important Hyksos cities were Tell el- Yahudiyeh. Professor Hans Goedicke believes that the Biblical city of Ra'amezez is. Pi- Ramesses. Hershel Shanks writing about Goedicke's. This identification. D. B. Redford, . 4. Moreover, the Residence of the Ramessides is. Egyptian sources by the use of the royal name Ramesses. When the Residence of the Ramessides is referred to, the royal name. Egyptian word pr, meaning house or residence. Long before Per Ramesses, in the same area was Avaris the capital of the. Hyksos kings and a border town when written in hieroglyphic transliteration. R3- mtny (Khatana) which is today called Tell ed- Dab'a and is being excavated. Manfred Bietak, Director of the Austrian Archaeological Institute in. Cairo. The hieroglyphic R3- mtny can be projected back into Semitic transcription. Ramesen. Therefore Shanks concludes, . One important ruler was named . There have been several different translations of this. Early scholars purposed the meaning of . In Phoenician. and Akkadian hr means . Ward states: Here hr, 'mountain,'. Hebrew sur, 'rock,' and similar. Suri- 'el, 'El is my rock.' I would thus render Y'qb- hr. My) mountain (i. e. In the Old Testament Zobel. The name (Jacob) is a hyocoristic form of what was originally a. Its full form, not found in the. OT, was 'Jacob- El'(1. Shanks 1. 98. 8, 2. Weil was the first to connect. Hyksos princes with the Biblical story of Jacob (Kempinski 1. The Jacob- El of Shiqmona must. Palestinian ruler, possibly the same Jacob of the Bible. Steuernagel. was the first to propose the idea of the . It may be that the name . This would help explain the absence of the name. Joseph Austrian Manfred Beitak excavating. Tell ed Dab'a, the ancient capital of the Hyksos, between 1. Dynasty with a tomb containing. Asiatic with a mushroom hairstyle that some scholars think. Joseph (Aling 1. 99. Rohl 1. 99. 5, 3. Much more evidence. Joseph's tomb (Redford 1. She concluded that in the middle of the 1. Dynasty. there were erratic Nile water levels that caused crop failure (Bell 1. Could this be Joseph's famine? I was in distress on. Great Throne, and those who are in the palace were in heart's affliction. Nile had not come in my time for a space. Grain was scant, fruits were dried up, and everything which. Every man robbed his companion (ANET 1. This tale tells how a young. ANET 1. 96. 9, 2. Lichtheim. 1. 97. In the 1. 2th Dynasty Egyptian tomb of Khunum- hotep (1. BC) at Beni Hasan is pictured a caravan of 3. Asiatics arriving in Egypt. Shutu (ANEP 1. 96. The leader is named Ibsha and bears the title . The land of Shutu is probably an ancient term for Gilead (Aharoni. The Ishmaelites who took Joseph down to Egypt came from Gilead. Dothan (Genesis 3. In the 1. 3th Dynasty there were a number. Asiatics serving in Egyptian households. One text lists 9. Theban household with 3. Asiatics, and at least 2. ANET 1. 96. 9, 5. Albright 1. 95. 5, 2. There is a Asiatic women. Sekratu (line 1. 3) which is related to . In the Book. of Sothis which Syncellus believed was the genuine Manetho it gives the. Joseph rose to power under Hyksos king, Aphophis who. It says: Some say that this king (Aphophis) was at first. Pharaoh, and that in the 4th year of his kingship Joseph came as. Egypt. He appointed Joseph lord of Egypt and all his kingdom. Manetho 1. 94. 0, 2. I have not slept forgetfully, (but) I have. I have raised up that which had gone. Asiatics were in the midst of Avaris of the. Northland, and vagabonds were in the midst of them, overthrowing that which. They ruled without Re, and he did not act by divide command. ANET 1. 96. 9, 2. Breasted 1. 98. 8, 1. Shanks 1. 98. 1, 4. The Hyksos worshipped Baal which was associated with the. Egyptian god Seth. This led to the neglect of other gods and temples which. Egyptians. There is debate over the exact period of time that. The Admonitions of Ipuwer describes. The text itself is from the 1. Dynasty. John Van Seters strongly argues for the time of the Hyksos (1. It states: Foreigners have become people everywhere.. Nile. is in flood.. River. is blood (ANET 1. Lichtheim 1. 97. 5, 1: 1. This sounds similar to. Egypt (Exodus 7: 1. The river. is not actually blood, but looks blood red because the Nile is flooding. His son. Ahmose was finally successful in pushing the Hyksos out. A commander named. Ah- mose records in his tomb the victory over the Hyksos. He says: When the. Avaris was besieged, then I showed valor on foot in the presence. Thereupon I was appointed to the ship, 'Appearing in Memphis.'. Then there was fighting on the water in the canal Pa- Djedku of Avaris. Thereupon. I made a capture, and I carried away a hand. It was reported to the king's. Then the Gold of Valor was given to me. Thereupon there was fighting. Then Avaris was despoiled. Then I carried off spoil. Then his majesty. Then Sharuhen was besieged for three years. Note that Avaris was besieged. Avaris was taken, and there is no burning of. Avaris stated which still fits Josephus' account. Bietak who has been excavating. Avaris says that there is no evidence for a violent destruction. Avaris. He states: The archaeological material stops abruptly with the. Dynasty. There are no scarabs of the 1. Dynasty type in Stratum. D/2. The most likely interpretation is that Avaris was abandoned. No conflagration. A/II and A/V (Bietak 1. The end of. Avaris may have involved a surrender, or as Josephus has stated, an arranged. Palestine (Against Apion 1. Bietak 1. 99. 1, 4. The story of the Exodus is most likely bases on the expulsion of the. Hyksos from Egypt, for there is no other record of any mass exit from Egypt. Robertson 1. 99. 0, 3. Halpern 1. 99. 4, 8. Redford 1. 89. 7, 1. The evidence. seems to fit well with Josephus' account. Although the Egyptians saw the. Hyksos as a great military victory, the Israelites viewed. This seems similar to other. In reality it was a stalemate. ANET 1. 96. 9, 2. Soggin 1. 99. 3, 2. How does the radiocarbon dating method work? The following article is primarily based on a discussion of radiocarbon dating found in The Biblical Chronologist Volume 5, Number 1. The vast majority of these are 1. C (pronounced . However, cosmic radiation constantly collides with atoms in the upper atmosphere. Part of the result of these collisions is the production of radiocarbon (1. C, pronounced . Radiocarbon is not stable; over time radiocarbon atoms decay into nitrogen atoms. This tendency to decay, called radioactivity, is what gives radiocarbon the name radiocarbon. The ratio of radiocarbon to stable carbon atoms in the atmosphere has varied in the past. This is because the amount and strength of cosmic radiation entering the earth's atmosphere has varied over time. Thus, the ratio of radiocarbon to stable carbon in a living plant is the same as the ratio of radiocarbon to stable carbon in the atmosphere at any given time. Animals (and humans) get their carbon atoms primarily from what they eat (i. Thus the ratio of radiocarbon to stable carbon in living animal tissue is also virtually the same as the ratio of radiocarbon to stable carbon in the atmosphere at any given time. When an organism dies (whether plant or animal) its intake of carbon atoms ceases. The starting ratio of radiocarbon to stable carbon is locked in at that point. From then on, the ratio of radiocarbon to stable carbon will decrease, because the unstable radiocarbon atoms will slowly decay. After about 5. 0,0. This is done in one of three ways: 1. Gas Proportional Counting, 2. Liquid Scintillation Counting, and 3. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry. The purpose in each of these methods is to determine the ratio of radiocarbon to stable carbon in the sample. From this measurement the age in radiocarbon years is calculated. Modern radiocarbon dates are calibrated using long tree- ring chronologies. This is necessary to remove errors in raw radiocarbon dates caused by fluctuations in the amount of radiocarbon in the atmosphere in the past. By cross- matching tree- ring sequences in individual specimens a long, continuous tree- ring chronology is constructed with very little dating uncertainty. This calibration step eliminates any concern about fluctuations in historic radiocarbon to stable carbon ratios or decay rates. It provides an objective, absolute method of determining a sample's age with quantifiable precision. Links & Credits. Thanks to Professor David Elmore of Purdue University for permission to use the photograph of their AMS apparatus. The photograph of tree- rings is from Henri D. Grissino- Mayer's Ultimate Tree- Ring Web Pages, a site with much interesting information about tree- rings and dendrochronology. The foregoing article was primarily based on a discussion of radiocarbon dating found in The Biblical Chronologist Volume 5, Number 1.
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